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Objective
In this module, you'll learn about the purpose of punctuation, as well as the function and meaning of various punctuation marks. You'll also learn about the common principles of specific punctuation usage:
The Purpose of Punctuation
Many centuries ago, scribes who made copies of important documents used expensive paper and ink. Because their supplies were so costly, they ran all of the words and sentences together so they could use as much of the available space as possible. During this time, readers became accustomed to determining for themselves where words and sentences began and ended. This changed with the printing press, and the first "punctuations" were printers' marks. In fact, printers were instrumental in the development of punctuation.
Now, writers and readers alike recognize the importance of using punctuation marks to "tell" readers certain things, such as where sentences begin and end, where lists can be expected, and where nonessential information is presented. In fact, writers and readers know that the appropriate (or "conventional" or "correct") use of punctuation can communicate almost as much information as the words themselves.
The Function and Meaning of Various Punctuation Marks
It's more important to understand the function of the most common punctuation marks than to memorize all of the rules associated with these marks. Often, understanding the reason to do something is more memorable than just knowing you should do it, don't you think?.
(1) End Punctuation: Periods (.), Question Marks (?), and Exclamation Points (!) separate ideas.
Using a mark of end punctuation tells readers that a complete sentence has ended. The three most common forms of end punctuation are the period (.), the question mark (?), and the exclamation point (!). A period is used to indicate the ending of a statement (which is why in countries where British English is spoken it's sometimes called a "full stop"). A question mark is used to indicate that the sentence is a question, not a statement. An exclamation point is used to indicate an exclamation, or an expression of thought mixed with strong emotion.
All the lights at the intersection turned red at the same time.
All the lights at the intersection turned red at the same time?
All the lights at the intersection turned red at the same time!
Each form of end punctuation changes the meaning of the sentence. In the first sentence, the speaker is simply making a statement; in the second sentence, the speaker is questioning something or indicating disbelief; and in the third sentence, the speaker is exclaiming the lights failed. The only way for readers to know which of these meanings you're trying to communicate is to "tell" them by your choice of end punctuation.
(2) Colons (:) add more information to the main idea.
Using a colon draws readers' attention to the words that follow it. Most commonly, a colon is used to introduce a word, a definition, description, a phrase, a list, or a quote:
There is only one way to respond to that: yikes! (word)
The storm was identified on Doppler radar: a device that uses radio waves to identify weather conditions. (definition or description)
You're going to need three things before you venture out into the storm: a coat, a waterproof umbrella, and rubber boots. (phrases, list)
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy included words in his inaugural address that are still good advice for most Americans today: "Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country." (quotation)
A colon can also be used to indicate that the second of two independent clauses explains, emphasizes, or summarizes the first:
I want you to know this: You're not going to get away with everything.
(independent clause)
Here, the colon has two functions: it suggests that what follows the word "this" will explain it; and, it emphasizes the message of the second clause. So, in this sentence, the colon indicates that the second part should receive greater attention than the first part.
(3) Semicolons (;) join related ideas.
Using a semi-colon tells readers that two independent clauses are connected because they're related. Although a semicolon suggests a relationship between two independent clauses, it doesn't identify for readers the type of relationship between the two clauses:
Her whisper was quite loud; everyone studying in the library heard her. (relationship
of addition)
Hannibal Lector was a gourmet cook; the ingredients he used were ghastly. (relationship of contrast)
The Red Raiders were losing by 14 points; Coach Smith replaced the quarterback. (relationship of cause/effect)
However, the type of relationship between the first and the second independent clauses can be specified if the two clauses are separated with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma. Some common conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, consequently, however, nonetheless, otherwise, and therefore.
Her whisper was quite loud; accordingly, everyone studying in the library heard her.
(relationship of addition)
Hannibal Lector was a gourmet cook; however, the ingredients he used where ghastly.
(relationship of contrast)
She didn't know what to do next; consequently, she called her advisor for suggestions.
(relationship of cause/effect)
A semicolon can also be used to separate long items in a list. Sometimes, the items listed are more than words or short phrases; in fact, they may either contain a brief list or be independent clauses themselves. If you want to list items that already contain other punctuation, such as commas, then the semicolon is your best choice.
During our vacation in northern Wisconsin, my family did many things. My brother, my sister, and I fished in the lake; my parents hiked in the woods; we all built a campfire using newspaper, kindling, and logs; and my sister and I put a frog in our brother's sleeping bag.
(4) Commas (,) separate modifiers and descriptions so that your ideas are clearer.
Using a comma tells readers that the words or phrases both before and after are separate items. The three most common reasons to use commas to separate words or phrases are:
- Separating items in a series
- Separating words/phrases from the main clause in a sentence
- Separating nonessential phrases/clauses from essential phrases/clauses
You will find specific information about commas, and even some quick practice exercises, in our module on comma usage.
(5) Apostrophes (‘) replace missing letters and words in phrases and show possession.
Apostrophes have two uses: forming contractions and indicting possession. Both of these uses indicate missing letters in words or phrases.
Contractions are informal shortenings of verb phrases that we use in conversations and notes to friends, but they don't often occur in formal writing. Usually they run two words in a phrase together and leave out a vowel. Here are some common examples: don't (do not), can't (cannot), isn't (is not), it's (it is), and I'm (I am).
The apostrophe in possessive forms is an indicator of missing words: of [a noun], of his, of hers, of its. Here are some examples:
The bike of John was mangled beyond recognition in the accident. (not possessive)
John's bike was mangled beyond recognition in the accident. (possessive for "of John")
Where it gets a little tricky is deciding where to place an apostrophe, which is usually based on whether or not the noun is singular or plural. In most cases, if the noun is singular, then the apostrophe comes before the "s"; if it is plural, then the apostrophe goes after the "s". Here are some examples:
The girl's books were heavy. (one girl whose books are heavy)
The girls' books were heavy. (more than one girl whose books are heavy)
As you can see the sentence is exactly the same, and the only thing that lets the reader know how many people you are writing about is the placement of that pesky apostrophe! Sometimes the rule gets confusing when we look at the object of the sentence (books, in the examples above). The placement of the apostrophe does not depend on whether the object is singular or plural; it depends on whether the "owner" of the object (or thing or idea) is singular or plural. Here are some examples:
The zoo's animals were fed four times a day. (Here, we use an apostrophe before the "s" because we are referring to one zoo. The fact that "animals" is plural does not have an effect on the placement of the apostrophe in "zoo's.")
Five zoos' animals were exchanged during an animal exchange program. (Here, the apostrophe goes after the "s" in zoos because we are writing about more than one zoo; the word "zoos" is plural.
Remember: there are some exceptions to this rule. Some words are made plural without the addition of an "s." For example: women, men, and children. When making these words possessive, you add an apostrophe plus "s."
The children's daycare center is down the street. (the daycare of multiple children)
The women's locker room was full of athletes after the game. (the locker room of more than one woman)
You may also wonder what to do when a singular noun ends in "s." When this happens, go ahead and add an apostrophe plus "s" to the noun to show possession.
Chris's shoes were soaked from walking in the rain. (the shoes belong to Chris; Chris is singular)
(6) Quotation Marks (") indicate the words of others.
Quotation marks are used to indicate unique wording or thoughts from other people. They are not used to emphasize words in sentences, which is where some writers get confused. Because there are so many ways to use quotation marks correctly, we have a module dedicated just to them: quotation marks.
(7) Hyphens join words and phrases into one complete and accurate idea
Hyphens used to be common when we needed to divide a long word at the end of a line of text while writing with a pen or a typewriter. Now that most writing is done on computers with text wrap, the hyphen is most commonly used to join words into a single idea.
Compound words and joined word units are often used as descriptive nouns or modifiers. You can tell they need a hyphen if the single words would not stand alone and retain the meaning you want:
John F. Kennedy's brother-in-law, Peter Lawford, was an actor. (exact meaning)
John F. Kennedy's brother in law, Peter Lawford, was an actor. (Brother, alone, isn't the relationship you want to show, and neither is law, which can't describe a person. However when you link them with hyphens, they are treated as a single word and the idea becomes clearer.)
Hyphens are commonly used with adjectives that include spelled out numbers:
In their twenty-year relationship, Rather and Cronkite never seemed to get along.
The twelve-foot beam held the weight of the suspended walkway.
Nouns that you need to add a prefix to are also hyphenated:
The anti-gun movement gained strength in the 1980s.
After 9/11, pro-American sentiment rose in the Western world, but that has now declined in the wake of the War on Terror.
Finally, hyphens are used when adding a prefix creates a word that could have another meaning:
Re-creation (to make again) vs. Recreation (a fun pastime)
Since hyphens have so many uses, it is a good idea to consult a dictionary when you are not sure whether or not a word should be hyphenated. Your spell/grammar checker will not correct this if there is a problem, so you need to refer to other sources.
(8) Special indicators in punctuation: dashes, slashes, parentheses, brackets, ellipsis
Special indicators tell readers things that usually fall outside of the content of your main idea. A special indicator could alert a reader to a side observation or could indicate that you changed the words in a quote to make things work grammatically. Here are the most common special indicators and some ideas about their uses:
Dashes (formed by using a double hyphen ( --) )
A dash is an informal kind of punctuation that indicates a pause or interruption to emphasize or clarify. Because they are informal, you won't often use them in an academic paper. More than one a paper might be too much! Here is an example of using a list separated by a dash to introduce an idea:
A mansion, a yacht, a villa in Spain – these are all things that this week's lottery winner said she would purchase in the near future.
You might also use a dash if you want to add an example list to the middle of a sentence:
Spicy ethnic foods – Thai, Indian, Iranian, African – have become a common part of the American diet
Slashes (/)
Slashes are most common in academic writing as indicators between lines of quoted poetry:
"Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, / Old Time is still a-flying;" (Herrick)
Slashes can also mean acceptable alternative wording: pass/fail, he/she, and/or:
Passports can be used for entry into foreign countries and/or as proof of identification.
Parentheses ( () )
Parentheses set off supplementary information that clarifies an idea or points to further information about the topic.
The process for making coffee in this pot has four steps: (1) fill receptacle with cold water, (2) insert filter, (3) measure coffee into filter, and (4) turn on the pot.
Unemployment is now at a low point for the decade (see Table 1).
Often, writers try to put extra information about the subject into parenthesis, but really should be using other more informative punctuation.
John (Sally's brother) was sickened when Sally ate live roaches on Fear Factor.
Sally's brother, John, was sickened when she ate live roaches on Fear Factor.
Brackets ( [ ] )
Brackets are used to insert your own words into the words of another writer. You may have noticed this in a markup from our essay center. At one time, they were also used by The Modern Languages Association (MLA) to indicate eliminated words, but according to the 6th edition, this is no longer true. Writers should use brackets to show changes or additions inside a quoted passage.
Original quotation from a source: "They were required by the school to wear helmets during practice" (Smith 47).
Clarified: "[Gymnasts] were required to wear helmets during practice" (Smith 47).
Ellipses ( . . . )
Ellipses confuse writers because they think that using them indicates a pause. However, it is a dash that indicates a pause. An ellipsis indicates words left out of a quotation that are not necessary to make a point. If the words you are omitting are at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence, you use 3 periods with spaces between them.
Original Quote: "Apart from his athletic prowess, Grady had been gifted with all the trappings of what I imagined to be a charmed life: a fastidious, aproned mother who radiated calm, maternal concern; a ruddy stoic father with a knack for home repairs." (Cooper 3).
Opening Ellipses: ". . . Grady had been gifted with all the trappings of what I imagined to be a charmed life: a fastidious, aproned mother who radiated calm, maternal concern; a ruddy stoic father with a knack for home repairs" (Cooper 3).
Interrupting Ellipses: "Apart from his athletic prowess, Grady had been gifted with . . . a charmed life: a fastidious, aproned mother who radiated calm, maternal concern; a ruddy stoic father with a knack for home repairs" (Cooper 3).
There are some style guides that say you do not need an ellipses at the beginning of a quote if the words you are omitting do not include a noun, so in formal papers, you will need to check the appropriate style guide, such as the MLA or APA, for specific guidelines.
If the words you are omitting are between two complete sentences, or more, you use four periods with spaces between them. The fourth period is an indicator of more than one sentence.
Original Quote: Apart from his athletic prowess, Grady had been gifted with all the trappings of what I imagined to be a charmed life: a fastidious, aproned mother who radiated calm, maternal concern; a ruddy stoic father with a knack for home repairs. The family dog was named Spot, and even the Smith's small suburban house in Hollywood looked as if it came from a storybook. (Cooper 3)
Ellipses to Combine Two or More Sentences: "Apart from his athletic prowess, Grady had been gifted with all the trappings . . . . even the Smiths' small suburban house in Hollywood looked as if it came from a storybook." (Cooper 3).
In past editions of the MLA style sheet, brackets were required around ellipses, but according to the 6th edition this is no longer necessary.
Summary
Punctuation is useful because it provides readers with necessary information about how to understand a piece of writing. Punctuation marks function in different ways, suggesting different meanings to readers; but each punctuation mark helps readers to make meaning from the sentence. As writers, it's important we understand the function of various punctuation marks because using these marks appropriately will help readers understand what we are trying to communicate.
  
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